Build deep Recursive Language Models

This guide demonstrates how to build a recursive language model (RLM) agent system that uses Daytona sandboxes, based on the approach pioneered in Recursive Language Models (Zhang, Kraska, Khattab) and further explored by Prime Intellect.

While the original paper and Prime Intellect’s implementation focus on single-level recursion (depth=1), this guide extends the concept to unlimited recursion depth — agents can spawn sub-agents, which can spawn their own sub-agents, and so on. Each agent runs in its own isolated Daytona sandbox with a fresh clone of the target repository.

1. Workflow Overview

The system implements a recursive agent architecture where agents can delegate subtasks to child agents:

1. Initialize: Root agent receives a task and gets a Daytona sandbox with a fresh repository clone
2. Iterate: Agent runs a loop: LLM call → extract Python code → execute in REPL
3. Delegate: Code can call rlm_query() to spawn sub-agents, each with their own sandbox
4. Aggregate: Sub-agents return results; parent synthesizes findings and optionally runs more code
5. Complete: Root agent receives all sub-agent results, produces a git patch; all sandboxes are cleaned up

Root Agent (depth=0)
├── Sub-Agent A (depth=1)
│   ├── Sub-Agent A1 (depth=2)
│   └── Sub-Agent A2 (depth=2)
└── Sub-Agent B (depth=1)
    ├── Sub-Agent B1 (depth=2)
    └── Sub-Agent B2 (depth=2)

Each agent runs in its own isolated Daytona sandbox with a fresh repository clone, enabling parallel exploration.

2. Setup

Clone the Repository

Clone the Daytona repository and navigate to the example directory:

git clone https://github.com/daytonaio/daytona.git
cd daytona/guides/python/recursive-language-models

Create Virtual Environment

python3.10 -m venv venv
source venv/bin/activate  # On Windows: venv\Scripts\activate

Install Dependencies

pip install -e .

This installs:

• daytona - Daytona SDK for sandbox management
• litellm - Unified LLM interface for any provider
• typer - CLI framework
• pyyaml - Configuration parsing

Configure Environment

Get your Daytona API key from the Daytona Dashboard and create a .env file:

DAYTONA_API_KEY=your_daytona_api_key
LLM_API_KEY=your_llm_api_key

The LLM_API_KEY is used via LiteLLM, supporting OpenRouter, OpenAI, Anthropic, and other providers.

3. Running an Agent

With setup complete, let’s run an agent. Here’s an example that investigates TODO comments in scikit-learn:

python run.py https://github.com/scikit-learn/scikit-learn \
  -p "Investigate TODO comments across this repository. Spawn sub-agents to explore different modules. Find the easiest TODO and fix it."

This spawns a root agent that explores the codebase, delegates to sub-agents for parallel investigation, and produces a git patch fixing the easiest TODO it finds. We’ll walk through the results and trace the execution in detail later, but first, let’s look at how the code works.

CLI Options

4. Understanding the Code

Let’s walk through the key components of the agent system.

Agent Execution Loop

Each agent runs an iteration loop that calls the LLM, extracts code blocks, and executes them. The core loop in agent.py:

def _run_loop(self) -> None:
    """Run the main iteration loop."""
    system_prompt = build_system_prompt(depth=self.depth)
    messages = [{"role": "system", "content": system_prompt}]
    execution_result = None

    for iteration in range(self.config.rlm.max_iterations):
        # Check global timeout
        if self._is_timeout():
            break

        # Build user prompt with previous execution result
        user_prompt = build_user_prompt(iteration, execution_result)
        messages.append({"role": "user", "content": user_prompt})

        # Get model completion
        response = self.client.completion(messages)
        messages.append({"role": "assistant", "content": response})

        # Execute code blocks in REPL
        repl_result = self.repl.execute_response(response)

        # Check for final answer
        if repl_result.final_answer is not None:
            self._result = repl_result.final_answer
            break

        # Format result for next iteration
        execution_result = format_execution_result(...)

Each iteration:

1. Builds a prompt with context from previous execution
2. Gets an LLM completion
3. Extracts and executes Python code blocks
4. Checks if the agent called FINAL() to submit results
5. Formats the output for the next iteration

Sub-Agent Spawning

When agent code calls rlm_query(), a new sub-agent is created with its own sandbox:

def _handle_rlm_query(self, task: str) -> str:
    """Spawn a sub-agent for a specific task."""
    # Check sandbox budget
    if not self.sandbox_manager.budget.can_acquire():
        return "Error: sandbox budget exhausted"

    # Create sub-agent at depth + 1
    sub_agent = RLMAgent(
        client=self.client,
        sandbox_manager=self.sandbox_manager,
        config=self.config,
        depth=self.depth + 1,
        task=task,
        # ... other params
    )

    # Run sub-agent (blocking)
    result = sub_agent.run()

    # Return result, truncated if necessary
    return result.result or "No result"

For parallel spawning, rlm_query_batched() uses a thread pool:

def _handle_rlm_query_batched(self, tasks: list[str]) -> list[str]:
    """Spawn multiple sub-agents in parallel."""
    results = [""] * len(tasks)

    with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=10) as executor:
        future_to_idx = {
            executor.submit(self._handle_rlm_query, task): i
            for i, task in enumerate(tasks)
        }
        for future in as_completed(future_to_idx):
            idx = future_to_idx[future]
            results[idx] = future.result()

    return results

Agent Code Interface

Inside the REPL, agents have access to these functions:

Example spawning pattern used by agents:

# Spawn multiple sub-agents to explore different modules
results = rlm_query_batched([
    "Search for TODO comments in sklearn/linear_model/ and assess difficulty",
    "Search for TODO comments in sklearn/ensemble/ and assess difficulty",
    "Search for TODO comments in sklearn/tree/ and assess difficulty",
])

for i, result in enumerate(results):
    print(f"=== Sub-agent {i+1} findings ===")
    print(result)

5. Example Walkthrough

Let’s trace what happens when we run an agent on a popular machine learning library, scikit-learn:

python run.py https://github.com/scikit-learn/scikit-learn \
  -p "Investigate TODO comments across this repository. Spawn sub-agents to explore different modules under sklearn/ in parallel. For each TODO found, assess how difficult it would be to fix (easy/medium/hard). After gathering results, pick the easiest TODO and fix it."

Note that there are about 400 lines in scikit-learn that contain the substring ”# TODO”.

Step 1: Root agent explores and spawns depth-1 sub-agents

The root agent (depth=0) examines the repository structure, identifies all sklearn modules, and spawns 25 sub-agents in parallel:

# Define the subdirectories to investigate
subdirs = [
    "cluster", "compose", "covariance", "cross_decomposition", "datasets",
    "decomposition", "ensemble", "feature_extraction", "feature_selection",
    "gaussian_process", "impute", "inspection", "linear_model", "manifold",
    "metrics", "mixture", "model_selection", "neighbors", "neural_network",
    "preprocessing", "semi_supervised", "svm", "tree", "utils"
]

# Create queries for sub-agents
queries = [
    f"Search for 'TODO' comments in 'sklearn/{subdir}/'. For each TODO found, provide: "
    f"1. The file path and line number. 2. The content of the TODO. 3. An assessment "
    f"of how difficult it would be to fix (easy/medium/hard) with a brief justification."
    for subdir in subdirs
]

results = rlm_query_batched(queries)

Each of these 25 sub-agents gets its own Daytona sandbox with a fresh clone of scikit-learn.

Step 2: Depth-1 agents spawn depth-2 agents

Some depth-1 agents decide their module is too large and spawn their own sub-agents. For example, the sklearn/metrics/ agent spawned 3 depth-2 agents:

# Inside the sklearn/metrics/ agent (depth=1)
# To efficiently handle the large number of TODOs, spawn sub-agents for sub-directories

tasks = [
    "Identify and assess TODOs in 'sklearn/metrics/cluster/'. Provide file, line, content, and difficulty.",
    "Identify and assess TODOs in 'sklearn/metrics/tests/'. Provide file, line, content, and difficulty.",
    "Identify and assess TODOs in 'sklearn/metrics/_plot/' and its 'tests' sub-directory."
]

results = rlm_query_batched(tasks)

Step 3: Results propagate back

Each sub-agent returns findings via FINAL(). Results flow back up:

• Depth-2 → Depth-1: Detailed analysis of specific subdirectories
• Depth-1 → Root: Module-level summaries with difficulty ratings

Step 4: Root agent synthesizes and acts

The root agent reviews all findings, identifies the easiest TODO, and makes the fix.

Step 5: Git patch produced

import subprocess
subprocess.run(['git', 'add', '-A'], cwd='/workspace')
result = subprocess.run(['git', 'diff', '--cached', 'HEAD'],
                        capture_output=True, text=True, cwd='/workspace')
FINAL(result.stdout)

Results

• Execution time: 316 seconds (~5.3 minutes)
• Agents spawned: 40 (25 at depth 1, 15 at depth 2)

Generated patch:

diff --git a/sklearn/utils/_array_api.py b/sklearn/utils/_array_api.py
--- a/sklearn/utils/_array_api.py
+++ b/sklearn/utils/_array_api.py
@@ -19,8 +19,7 @@ from sklearn.externals.array_api_compat import numpy as np_compat
 from sklearn.utils._dataframe import is_df_or_series
 from sklearn.utils.fixes import parse_version

-# TODO: complete __all__
-__all__ = ["xpx"]  # we import xpx here just to re-export it, need this to appease ruff
+__all__ = ['device', 'get_namespace', 'get_namespace_and_device', 'indexing_dtype', 'move_to', 'size', 'supported_float_dtypes', 'xpx', 'yield_namespace_device_dtype_combinations', 'yield_namespaces']

The agent found the easiest TODO (# TODO: complete __all__ in sklearn/utils/_array_api.py) and completed the __all__ list with all public symbols from the module.

6. Configuration

Configure the agent in config.yaml:

# Model configuration - using LiteLLM format
model:
  name: "openrouter/google/gemini-3-flash-preview"

# RLM configuration
rlm:
  max_sandboxes: 50
  max_iterations: 50
  global_timeout: 3600
  result_truncation_limit: 10000

7. Viewing Results

Results are saved to the results/ directory as JSON files. Use the built-in viewer:

python -m http.server 8000

The viewer provides:

• Interactive tree visualization of the agent hierarchy
• Iteration details with code and output for each agent
• Statistics: agent count, max depth, total iterations

8. Conclusion

Current language models aren’t specifically trained to leverage recursive delegation, so RLMs don’t necessarily outperform single-agent approaches on benchmarks yet. However, the architecture demonstrates compelling properties for complex tasks.

In our scikit-learn example, 40 agents ran in parallel across the agent tree, each with its own isolated sandbox, completing the entire run in just over 5 minutes. This level of parallelism, where each agent can freely modify files, run tests, and explore without affecting others, would be difficult to achieve without per-agent sandboxes.

Key advantages of this approach:

• Recursive decomposition: Complex tasks naturally break into sub-tasks handled by specialized agents
• Isolated execution: Each agent gets a fresh sandbox, preventing interference
• Parallel exploration: rlm_query_batched() enables concurrent investigation